Objective: The main objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between alexithymia, psychological symptoms and attachment styles in normal individuals. Another purpose of the present study was to examine the associations between sosyodemografic variables such as sex and educational level and alexithymia. Method: Three hundred individuals between 18 to 40 years of age participated. The mean age of participants was 26.71 years (ss= 7.00). Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS), Experience in Close Relationships (ECR), and Brief Symptom Inventory (BIS) were used for data collection. Results: The sample was divided into two different groups in terms of alexithymia scores. Alexithymic individuals had significantly higher scores on the psychological symptoms, avoidant and anxious attachment styles. The regression analysis also revealed that educational level, anxious attachment style and psycholocial symptoms were important predictors of alexithymia scores. Conclusion: According to the results of the current study, high psycholocial symptoms, anxious attachment style and low levels of education were important predictors of alexithymia scores. Thus, these findings may be useful for clinical psychological practices. When psychological symptoms of clients seeking therapy are being evaluated, it is important to note that these may be the characteristics of alexithymia. In addition, taking into consideration the relationships between these features of alexithymia and low levels of education and unsecure attachment styles might help to determine both the type of therapy and techniques which will be used in this therapy.

Objective: The purpose of the present study was to replicate Svrakic and his colleagues' study (2002) that explored the underlying dimensional structure of personality disorders based on Cloninger's seven-factor psy- chobiological model of temperament and character. Method: Temperament and character traits were evaluated in a sample of 544 psychiatric patients who were admitted at Dokuz Eylül University Hospital Psychiatry Clinics. The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) and the SCID-II Personality Questionnaire were administered individually to the subjects. Results: Low scores on character dimensions, especially low Self-directed ness and Cooperativeness, consistently correlated with high symptom counts for any personality disorder, for each of three DSM clusters of personality disorders. Conclusion: The results of this study confirm Cloninger and co-workers' earlier results with psychiatric patients. The concepts of character and temperament are essential to distinguish the core symptoms (shared by all subtypes) of personality disorder from the distinguishing features (specific for subtypes). Each DSM cluster is differentiated based on one of the TCI dimensions: Cluster A by low Reward Dependence, Cluster B by high Novelty Seeking, and Cluster C by high Harm Avoidance. In conclusion, poorly developed character traits are shared by all sub- types of personality disorders and can be used to diagnose the presence or absence and the severity of personality disorder. In different topics of psychiatric research and practice, the TCI scores can be used to estimate the probability for the presence or absence of personality disorder.

The purpose of this review is to identify subtypes of dopamine receptors on main dopaminergic pathways, review the main post-synaptic intracellular signal mechanisms and summarize the importance of these micro- cellular structures on the formation of psychotic symptoms. Until recently D1 and D2 receptor sub-types were considered as the only dopaminergic receptors, but molecular clonnation studies have revealed three other receptor subtypes (D3 and D4 are called "D2-like, while D5 is considered as "Di-like"). Di-like receptors interact with G-stimulator (Gs) proteins and activate cAMP. D2- like receptors interact with G-inhibitor (Gi) proteins and inhibit cAMP formation. Dopamine receptors cause signal inductions via regulation of phospholipaze C and arachidonic acid secretion as well. Besides, dopamine receptors also regulate activation of Na/H exchangers and Na-K ATPase. Recently, it has been shown that GPy subtypes of both D2S and D2L receptor izoforms may cause cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis via protein kinase C, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways. In addition, dopamine receptors are modulated by a group of molecules called dopamine receptor interacting proteins (DRIPs). Dopamine activity is also modulated by auto-receptors, as well as intra-synaptic enzymatic degradation and presynaptic dopmaine transporter (DAT). Other neurotransmitter systems are also involved in dopamine modulation. In schizophrenia, as a result of disregulated dopamine system that fires and releases dopamine independently of cue and context, a psychotic state with aberrant novelty feeling and salience occurs.

Female sexual dysfunctions include persistent or recurrent disorders of interest/desire, disorders of subjective and genital arousal, orgasm disorder, and pain and difficulty with attempted or completed intercourse. Vaginismus is defined as a recurrent or persistent involuntary spasm of the musculature of the outer third of the vagina that interferes with sexual intercourse. Traditional definitions consider vaginal spasm during penetration to be the primary characteristic, however, current research has reduced importence of vaginal spasm and underlines the experience of anxiety and pain. Although vaginismus is classified as a sexual pain disorder in DSM-IV-TR, pain in this diagnostic system is not a necessary condition for the diagnosis. Vulvar vestibulitis syndrome (VVS) is characterized by severe pain and tenderness on vestibular touch or attempted vaginal entry, with no obvious local vulvar pathology except for vestibular erythema. WS has been reported to be a major cause of dyspareunia in premenopausal women. With regard to the role of psychological factors in the possible etiology of sexual pain disorders, a distinction is made between women with VVS, women with dyspareunia not identified as VVS, and women with vaginismus. The purpose of this article is to review the clinical presentation and definition of two categories of sexual pain disorders: dyspareunia/WS and vaginismus. Studies about dyspareunia/WS and vaginismus were searched, and data about the definition, classification, diagnostic criteria, etiology, clinical features, and treatment were evaluated. It is concluded that the differential diagnosis between vaginismus and VVS/dyspareunia is difficult, and a multi-dimensional/multi-discipliner description, assessment and treatment of these syndromes is needed.

The relationship between borderline personality disorder and both Axis I and Axis II disorders has been a controversy since borderline personality disorder took place in DSM-III classification in 1980. Bipolar disorder diagnosis has been more frequently cited by psychologists and psychiatrists recently. Mood disorders is seen as appropriate diagnostic category that could explain the phenomenology of borderline personality disorder according to the majority of the clinicians in the field. The aim of this review was to examine the specific relationship of borderline personality disorder with bipolar disorder and to discuss whether it is a bipolar spectrum disorder or not in the light of the literature. For this purpose, first the concept of borderline personality disorder is reviewed. The epidemiology and the comorbidities between borderline personality disorder and other axis I disorders are other subtopics included in this paper. Both the opinions of the writers who suggest that borderline personality disorder is in fact a bipolar affective disorder is assesed and the views of the writers who suggest that borderline personality disorder is a valid diagnostic category is discussed. As a summary, although there are some particular overlaps observed because of the nature of the psychopathologies, it looks rational to consider these disorders as independent and different categories. In order to understand this controversial relationship future epidemiological, longitudinal, pharmacological and genetic studies are needed.